Introduction
During the Ottoman era, which lasted from 1516 to 1918, the Jabal Amel region witnessed significant developments in both social and economic aspects. The inhabitants of the region interacted with the changes brought by Ottoman rule in a manner that profoundly impacted the structure of society and the movement of its economy. Jabal Amel, located in southern Lebanon, represented a social model based on the traditional tribal system, where social and political life was governed by tribal alliances and foundational relationships between families and clans. This tribal system was considered a fundamental element of societal cohesion, as family leaderships contributed to resolving disputes, maintaining internal security, and overseeing the distribution of resources among clan members.

 

In addition, agriculture and trade, despite the political and economic challenges imposed by the Ottoman administration, occupied a prominent position in daily life, as most of the population relied on the land for sustenance. However, despite the challenges of Ottoman rule, such as heavy taxation and administrative regulations imposed by the empire, Jabal Amel managed to maintain a relative degree of independence in several areas. While high taxes burdened farmers and administrative restrictions affected merchants and scholars, the Ameli society adapted to these constraints through a network of internal relationships between local leaders, scholars, and traders. The interaction among these local actors contributed to maintaining a form of social and economic stability, which helped strengthen the sense of belonging to the region.

 

Economically, Jabal Amel’s unique geographical location made it a vital connection point between the Lebanese interior and coastal areas such as Sidon and Tyre. This location transformed the region into an important commercial center, as trade played a crucial role in stimulating and supporting the local economy. Local goods, including agricultural products and handicrafts, were marketed to Mediterranean markets, making Jabal Amel one of the key economic hubs in Greater Syria (Bilad al-Sham). As a result, the region played a significant role in regional trade, linking commerce between mountain villages and coastal cities, which positioned Jabal Amel at the forefront of economic growth during the Ottoman era.

 

In this chapter, we will examine in detail the social transformations that took place in the region due to the influence of the Ottoman system and how these transformations contributed to shaping a distinct social structure characterized by interwoven classes and professions, as well as the impact of these changes on interactions between different social classes in Jabal Amel. We will also analyze the economic transformations that the region experienced due to changes in the agricultural, commercial, and industrial sectors and how these transformations played a pivotal role in developing the local economic system.

 

First: Social Transformations in Jabal Amel
During the Ottoman era, society in Jabal Amel relied heavily on the tribal system, which formed the cornerstone of organizing social and political life. Tribes in Jabal Amel were structured as integrated social units composed of individuals linked by strong familial and tribal bonds. These bonds dictated all aspects of daily life. Tribes determined the nature of relationships between individuals within society and served as the foundation of local governance. Each tribe was led by a leader called the sheikh, who represented the highest authority within the tribe and was responsible for resolving disputes, managing resources, and determining methods of cooperation with others. Thus, relations between tribes were governed by customary laws and local traditions that were generally adhered to, even before official authorities intervened.

 

The Tribal Structure in Jabal Amel
Tribes formed the nucleus of Ameli society and served as the basis for organizing social and political life. Each tribe had an internal structure composed of senior sheikhs, who managed the tribe’s affairs independently, following well-established traditional norms. These sheikhs represented the tribal authority and played a crucial role in resolving internal disputes within the tribe and conflicts with other tribes. Additionally, they were responsible for distributing wealth and resources fairly, according to tribal customs.

 

The tribal leader (sheikh) was often regarded as the final arbiter in many cases and sometimes intervened in political decisions related to security arrangements and governance within the region. This tribal structure granted Jabal Amel a degree of autonomy in managing its affairs, helping to preserve societal cohesion despite the challenges imposed by Ottoman rule.

 

The Role of Tribes in Social and Political Relations
Tribes in Jabal Amel played a pivotal role in shaping both social and political relationships within the region.

 

1. Social Role
Tribes created strong bonds among their members, where every individual was closely connected to the rest of the tribe.
These connections provided mutual support and protection against external threats.
2. Political Role
Tribes often competed for power and influence, leading to frequent internal conflicts, especially over land and resources.
These tribal disputes were sometimes exploited by the Ottoman authorities, who would intervene in tribal conflicts to expand their influence or enforce their rule by making agreements with tribal leaders.
The Ottomans relied on these tribal leaders to manage local affairs, particularly in tax collection and security maintenance, in exchange for political privileges.
In some cases, Ottoman intervention in tribal conflicts led to a decline in the independence of some local leaders, as they were forced to cooperate with the state in order to retain their positions and leadership. Nevertheless, tribes in Jabal Amel retained a degree of influence in local decision-making, making the region a key player in the interactions between Ottoman authority and local communities in Greater Syria.

 

Second: Economic Transformations in Jabal Amel
The economic landscape of Jabal Amel during the Ottoman era was shaped by significant transformations, influenced by agricultural, commercial, and industrial developments. Despite the burdens of Ottoman taxation and administrative constraints, the people of Jabal Amel managed to adapt and develop a dynamic economic system that ensured their survival and growth.

 

1. Agriculture: The Backbone of the Economy
Agriculture was the primary economic activity in Jabal Amel, with most of the population relying on farming for their livelihood.

 

Main Crops: The region was known for its production of tobacco, olives, grains, and grapes.
Impact of Ottoman Policies: Heavy taxes on agricultural products strained farmers, sometimes forcing them to migrate or shift to less-taxed crops.

2. Trade: Jabal Amel as a Regional Commercial Hub
Due to its strategic location, Jabal Amel played a central role in trade between the Lebanese interior and the Mediterranean coast.

 

Key Trade Routes: Goods from Jabal Amel were exported through the ports of Sidon and Tyre, connecting the region to international markets.
Merchants’ Role: Local merchants played a key role in maintaining the economic balance by negotiating tax reductions and forming trade alliances.

3. Handicrafts and Industry
Besides agriculture and trade, the people of Jabal Amel engaged in traditional industries such as:

Weaving textiles
Pottery making
Blacksmithing and carpentry
These industries provided additional economic opportunities and reinforced the region’s self-sufficiency.

 

Conclusion
The period of Ottoman rule brought significant social and economic transformations to Jabal Amel. The tribal system remained the dominant social structure, influencing governance and community organization. However, Ottoman policies often sought to manipulate tribal dynamics to their advantage.

 

Economically, despite high taxation and administrative challenges, Jabal Amel maintained its role as a key agricultural and commercial hub in Greater Syria. The resilience of its people, along with their ability to adapt to changing conditions, ensured the region’s continued growth and stability throughout the Ottoman era.

 

 

 

Prominent Tribes in Jabal Amel:
Al Ali Al-Saghir:
The Al Ali Al-Saghir family is one of the most prominent families in Jabal Amel, having managed to maintain their political and military influence for extended periods. They played a pivotal role in managing the regions affairs, excelling in directing and organizing military power to safeguard their interests and establish control over strategic areas. Their political alliances were a key factor in strengthening their position in Jabal Amel, as they successfully built a network of relationships with other local families, allowing them to influence the political balance in the region.

 

Despite the Ottoman Empires attempts to dominate the area, Al Ali Al-Saghir strived to preserve Jabal Amel’s independence and resisted heavy Ottoman influence. Their strategy revolved around using military strength and diplomacy to maintain the internal balance of power in Jabal Amel, keeping it relatively insulated from the external pressures imposed by the Ottoman authorities at times.

 

Al Sharafeddine:
The Al Sharafeddine family was among the most influential families in the religious and scholarly domains in Jabal Amel. They played a significant role in spreading religious education and fostering religious awareness in the region, with many of their scholars serving as esteemed religious authorities in society. Their scholars were instrumental in managing educational institutions and guiding religious affairs, which earned the family a distinguished status in the community.

 

By prioritizing religious education, the family produced numerous scholars who became prominent figures in various fields of Islamic jurisprudence and sciences. The religious perspectives put forth by Al Sharafeddine scholars had a profound impact on shaping the intellectual fabric of Jabal Amel. While the family also held political influence, their primary impact was in the spiritual and religious spheres, helping to instill the religious values that formed the foundation of the society’s identity.

 

The Peasant and Merchant Tribes:
In addition to the major tribes that controlled political power in Jabal Amel, there were also groups of peasants and merchants who played a vital role in the region’s economic structure. These individuals were largely detached from significant tribal influence but formed the economic backbone of Jabal Amel through their agricultural and commercial activities.

 

Peasants primarily relied on agriculture for their sustenance, while merchants played a crucial role in trade between Jabal Amel and coastal cities such as Sidon and Tyre, contributing to the local economys vibrancy. As the Ottoman state increased tax pressures, these peasants and merchants faced significant hardships but also provided economic stability to the region. Their financial interests were closely tied to agricultural activities, producing crops such as tobacco and olives, and trading these goods in larger markets. Although they did not wield the political influence of the dominant tribes, these peasants and merchants were an indispensable part of Jabal Amel’s social and economic fabric.

 

The Impact of Tribal Structure on Society:
Strengthening Social Cohesion:
The tribal system in Jabal Amel played a crucial role in enhancing social cohesion among community members. The tribe was not just a familial unit but an extensive network of social connections that influenced all aspects of daily life. Relationships within the tribe were based on cooperation and mutual support, which helped maintain social stability in the face of challenges posed by Ottoman authorities and external threats.

 

On a deeper level, the tribe provided a strong sense of belonging and identity, where each member took pride in their tribal status and recognized their interests as being closely linked to those of the broader tribe. This social system extended beyond social aspects to include economic and political dimensions, with tribes serving as the primary organizing and guiding force in daily affairs and collective challenges.

 

Internal Rivalry:
Despite the strength that tribal ties provided, internal rivalry among tribes in Jabal Amel remained a constant challenge. Tribes competed in many areas, particularly over control of natural resources such as agricultural lands and water, as well as political influence. These rivalries were not just about land disputes but also about dominance over local governance and the ability to influence ruling decisions in the region.

 

Tribal conflicts sometimes escalated to violence and threats as tools for resolving disputes. These tensions significantly impacted the region’s stability, with some areas becoming battlegrounds for ongoing conflicts between competing tribes, making Jabal Amel a stage for political and social upheaval. However, in some instances, settlements and mediations were reached through tribal elders, who played a crucial role in conflict resolution, reflecting the tribal structure’s tendency to address internal issues collectively.

 

Collaboration with the Ottomans:
Despite internal conflicts, there were periods of close cooperation between tribal leaders and the Ottoman authorities. This cooperation was based on mutual interests, where tribal leaders benefited from the privileges granted by the Ottoman administration in exchange for maintaining internal stability and managing local affairs in line with the states interests.

 

Tribal leaders collaborated with the Ottomans in tax collection, selecting members from their tribes to oversee the process on behalf of the state. Additionally, tribes were responsible for maintaining security in their controlled areas, reducing the need for the Ottomans to deploy military forces constantly in Jabal Amel. In return, tribal leaders received protection from the Ottoman authorities, which strengthened their positions within their tribes. This collaboration represented a form of integration between the Ottoman authority and the tribal system, where the tribes contributed to local stability while the Ottoman state provided political and administrative support in return.

 

Thus, despite internal challenges, the tribal structure played a significant role in reinforcing societal cohesion in Jabal Amel through deep-rooted notions of loyalty and adaptability to shifting political circumstances by cooperating with Ottoman rule.

 

Social Classes in Jabal Amel During the Ottoman Era:
During the Ottoman era, society in Jabal Amel was marked by a clear class hierarchy, with different social groups varying in their influence over the regions economic, social, and political life. These social classes played a major role in shaping societal patterns and determining power relations and resource distribution. Despite economic hardships caused by heavy Ottoman taxation, these distinct classes helped structure and develop the local community.

 

1. The Peasants:
The peasant class was the largest and most crucial social group in Jabal Amel, as the majority of the population relied on agriculture as their primary source of livelihood. The land was their lifeline, used to cultivate essential crops such as wheat, olives, grapes, and vineyards, in addition to raising livestock like cattle and sheep. Agriculture was not only necessary for local sustenance but also played a central role in the regional economy, with produce being exported to major markets in nearby cities like Sidon, Beirut, and Damascus.

 

Despite their economic importance, peasants lived in extreme poverty due to heavy Ottoman taxation, which was collected through the "tax farming system" (Iltizam). Local figures, known as "tax farmers" (Multezim), were appointed by the Ottoman administration to collect taxes, often imposing exorbitant levies on peasants. Additionally, many peasants were forced to work on the lands of large landowners, receiving only a small portion of the harvest, making their economic circumstances even harsher.

 

However, some peasants managed to retain small or medium-sized plots of land, allowing them to achieve self-sufficiency or sell surplus produce in local markets. Despite economic hardships, strong social ties within their tribes provided them with communal support during disputes or crises.

 

2. Merchants and Artisans:
Trade and craftsmanship were the second most important sectors in Jabal Amel’s economy during the Ottoman era. Due to its strategic location, Jabal Amel served as a vital link between Lebanon’s interior and major coastal cities in the Levant. Sidon and Tyre were the primary trade hubs connecting Jabal Amel to the outside world, making commerce a significant economic activity.

 

Merchants profited greatly from selling local agricultural products such as olives, tobacco, and wheat while also exporting handmade goods produced in local workshops. They maintained extensive trade networks with major cities like Damascus, Beirut, and Sidon, frequently traveling for business. This made them part of the middle class, possessing financial stability and economic freedom that exceeded that of peasants.

 

Artisans specialized in traditional crafts such as pottery, textiles, blacksmithing, and carpentry. These crafts were primarily produced in small village workshops, with goods used for daily life or exported to coastal markets. Though artisans did not enjoy the same wealth as prominent merchants, they formed an independent and essential economic class.

 

3. Religious Scholars and Clerics:
The religious and scholarly class wielded moral and intellectual authority in Jabal Amel. Though not necessarily wealthy, clerics and scholars held esteemed social positions due to their role in religious education and jurisprudence. They oversaw religious endowments (waqf) and managed educational institutions, ensuring the community adhered to religious and ethical values.

 

Despite lacking direct political power, their influence extended into social and educational spheres, making them integral to Jabal Amel’s social system.

 

 

 

 

The Social Structure and Its Impact on Society in Jabal Amel During the Ottoman Era

In Jabal Amel, the social structure was a defining feature of the societal organization, with significant disparities between classes in terms of power, influence, and wealth. This class structure had widespread effects on daily life, social relationships, and interactions between individuals and groups in the region.

 

1. Social Disparities:
Social disparity in Jabal Amel was one of the most distinctive aspects of society during the Ottoman era, where different classes lived under vastly different economic and social conditions. The peasant class, which constituted the majority of the population, suffered from extreme poverty due to the heavy taxation imposed by the Ottoman state on agricultural lands, in addition to the burdens imposed by tribal and feudal systems. Peasants toiled on the land without receiving financial returns commensurate with their efforts, often forced to work on feudal lands to secure their daily sustenance, leaving them in a state of deprivation.

 

On the other hand, the ruling and feudal families, representing the upper class, enjoyed significant influence in society, benefiting from political and economic privileges through their alliances with the Ottoman authorities. These families controlled vast areas of land and profited from the feudal system, which ensured them a steady income from agricultural produce, alongside their control over financial resources collected from taxes. Furthermore, these families were protected by the Ottoman state, enabling them to maintain their power and influence in the region.

 

Religious scholars, meanwhile, formed a semi-independent class, enjoying a prestigious social standing despite not belonging to the wealthy or landowning elite. Although they did not own land or financial assets directly, their influence extended far beyond material wealth. They controlled religious education and played a significant role in shaping public opinion and resolving social disputes, granting them considerable sway over political and social life.

 

2. Class Transformations:
Despite the vast disparities between classes in Jabal Amel, the region experienced some social changes that allowed for limited class mobility. These transformations were driven by economic and commercial changes that began to take shape with the growth of trade and the flourishing of certain local industries.

 

Trade played a crucial role in creating some level of class balance. Thanks to Jabal Amel’s geographical location, which connected inland Lebanon with coastal cities like Sidon, Beirut, and Damascus, commercial activity began to thrive, allowing some merchants to accumulate wealth. Many of these traders, who started as farmers or craftsmen, managed to rise to higher social classes through their business successes.

 

Similarly, some peasants who managed to save small capital through improvements in agricultural production or trading local products were able to enhance their social and economic status. These individuals succeeded in purchasing new lands or improving their standard of living, enabling them to establish influential commercial or social families within their communities.

 

With this class mobility, the tribal system in Jabal Amel began to exhibit some flexibility in adapting to these changes. Whereas it was previously difficult for individuals from lower classes to ascend to the upper echelons of society, the economic changes in the region created new opportunities for those who could invest in trade or economic ventures.

 

Moreover, intellectual and religious movements that spread in Jabal Amel during the Ottoman period played a role in altering the social structure. Some religious and academic schools, such as the prominent Islamic seminaries (hawzas), provided educational opportunities that allowed impoverished youth to climb the social ladder through knowledge and expertise. These young scholars gained societal respect and access to higher positions in religious or educational institutions.

 

3. The Impact of Class Disparity on Society:
This class disparity had a profound impact on power dynamics and dominance in Jabal Amel, shaping social relationships and daily interactions. The upper classes retained political and economic influence, leveraging their alliances with the Ottoman authorities to secure special privileges. In contrast, lower classes, such as peasants and small traders, faced severe economic pressures and had limited opportunities for social advancement.

 

Despite these challenges, class differences did not entirely erode social cohesion within familial and tribal communities. Tribes in Jabal Amel provided strong social support networks for their members, resolving disputes through consensus and offering protection against external threats. This tribal system, centered around loyalty and familial affiliation, helped strengthen social bonds and mitigate tensions arising from class disparities.

 

Education and Religious Life in Jabal Amel During the Ottoman Era
The educational system in Jabal Amel during the Ottoman period was largely based on religious institutions, with religious education forming the foundation of all educational structures. Additionally, religiosity was an integral part of daily life, influencing various social and cultural aspects of the region. Religious institutions played a key role not only in teaching jurisprudence and Islamic law but also in shaping the social and political identities of individuals.

 

1. Islamic Seminaries (Hawzas):
The Islamic seminaries (hawzas) played a central role in education in Jabal Amel during the Ottoman era. These institutions served as religious and educational centers specializing in the study of Islamic jurisprudence, particularly Shiite jurisprudence, and had a deep impact on local society. The hawzas did not limit themselves to religious studies but also offered teachings in subjects like philosophy, logic, Quranic interpretation, and hadith studies, making them hubs for intellectual and religious discourse in the region.

 

Many scholars and thinkers who emerged from these seminaries played significant roles in the development of religious and political thought in Jabal Amel. The hawzas were instrumental in shaping societal and political relations by teaching students how to engage with social and political issues from a religious perspective. These institutions also fostered a vast network of scholars who had direct influence over social and legal matters within the community.

 

It is worth noting that hawzas were often located in major cities and villages known for their scholarly presence, such as Tyre and Sidon. They attracted students from various surrounding regions, making them esteemed academic centers recognized throughout the Levant.

 

2. Traditional Schools and Kuttabs:
Alongside the hawzas, another form of traditional education in Jabal Amel was the kuttabs, which were widespread in larger villages. Kuttabs aimed to teach children reading, writing, and Quranic memorization, and education in these schools was primarily limited to boys, as female education was considered unnecessary at the time. Children began their schooling at a young age, learning the Arabic alphabet and basic religious concepts before advancing to Quranic studies.

 

Teachers in the kuttabs were often local religious scholars or elderly men who possessed basic literacy skills. Despite the simplicity of the curriculum compared to the hawzas, kuttabs formed the foundation for spreading religious and cultural knowledge within the community.

 

However, education in the kuttabs was not equally accessible to all, as it was mostlyavailable to children from lower and middle-class families. Children from wealthy or elite backgrounds often had access to private tutors, religious seminaries, or the opportunity to study in larger cities.

 

3. Religion and Popular Religiosity:
Religion in Jabal Amel was an essential aspect of daily life, extending beyond personal beliefs to influence social and cultural structures. Mosques were not only places of worship but also served as social and cultural hubs where people gathered to discuss local and religious matters and organize community events such as religious festivals.

 

Shiite Islam was the predominant religious orientation in Jabal Amel, directly shaping various aspects of life. The people of Jabal Amel adhered to the Twelver Shiite doctrine, which emphasized loyalty to the Imams and strict adherence to Islamic jurisprudence. Religious rituals such as Ashura played a crucial role in strengthening the Shiite identity in the region and were among the most significant religious events.

 

Sufism also had a presence in some parts of Jabal Amel, particularly in villages where Sufi orders were active. Sufism sometimes intertwined with traditional religious practices, influencing local culture. Sufi orders such as the Tijaniyya and Qadiriyya were widespread in some villages and taught spiritual practices that extended beyond daily religious observances, focusing on asceticism and mysticism.

 

4. The Influence of Religion on Education and Society:
Religion had a clear impact on education and social development in Jabal Amel. Religious institutions were not merely centers for worship but also the primary sources for transmitting knowledge and religious thought. Although education during the Ottoman period was largely restricted to males, religious awareness fostered a strong social identity that transcended class divisions.

 

Additionally, the religious consciousness cultivated by the hawzas and kuttabs played a crucial role in shaping social relationships. Interactions among people were based on mutual understanding and cooperation in accordance with religious principles, with religious scholars holding authority over managing endowments and resolving disputes.

 

 

 

 

Second: Economic Transformations in Jabal Amel

1. Agriculture and Its Economic Importance in Jabal Amel
The agricultural sector was the backbone of Jabal Amel’s economy during the Ottoman era, with most of the population relying on farmland as their primary source of livelihood. Farmers constituted the majority of society, cultivating the land and tending to various crops that fulfilled their nutritional needs and contributed to local economic activity. Despite significant challenges imposed by the Ottoman state—such as heavy taxation and centralized resource control—farmers in Jabal Amel managed to achieve a degree of agricultural stability and secure their income by adapting to changing economic conditions.

 

Agriculture in Jabal Amel exemplified resilience and adaptability. Farmers maintained production despite financial pressures resulting from Ottoman taxation policies, which were enforced centrally and, in some cases, through the iltizam (tax farming) system. This system placed additional strain on farmers, who were sometimes forced to work on lands owned by landlords or feudal lords to meet their tax obligations. However, despite this pressure, they managed to sustain a stable agricultural sector throughout the late Ottoman period.

 

Key Agricultural Crops:
Tobacco: Tobacco became one of Jabal Amel’s most strategic crops, with its cultivation expanding significantly during the Ottoman period. It was primarily grown in the mountainous regions, where climate conditions were favorable. Tobacco was a major source of income for farming families and found markets both locally and internationally. It was exported to major cities such as Beirut and Sidon, playing a crucial role in stimulating local and international trade. Additionally, tobacco cultivation required a substantial workforce, creating numerous employment opportunities for the local population.

 

However, as production grew, the Ottoman state imposed high taxes on tobacco as part of its strategy to increase revenue from agricultural lands. Despite these taxes, tobacco retained its status as a key crop, ensuring that its cultivation remained an essential part of the region’s economy.

 

Olives: Olives were another fundamental crop in Jabal Amel. The mountainous terrain of the region was ideal for olive tree cultivation, providing a steady supply of olives for local consumption and trade. Olive oil was a staple in the diet of farming families and was also exported to nearby markets in cities like Sidon and Beirut, where it was highly sought after.

 

Olive farming was closely tied to local traditions, with the harvest season serving as a communal event where families and neighbors gathered to collect the fruit. The high quality of Jabal Amel’s olive oil made it a prized commodity in both local and international markets. Despite economic hardships, olive farming remained a stable source of income for farmers.

 

Vineyards and Fruit Cultivation: Grapes and figs were also important crops that played a significant role in Jabal Amel’s economy. Vineyards thrived in the region’s soil, and farmers relied on traditional irrigation methods using groundwater or seasonal rains. Grapes were harvested in abundance and consumed locally or sold in markets in Sidon, Tyre, and Beirut. They were also used to produce wine and preserves. Meanwhile, figs were a valuable crop due to their long shelf life, allowing farmers to sell them throughout the year.

 

These fruits were cultivated in less fertile lands compared to olives, but they still provided a good financial return, particularly in commercial markets. The trade of grapes and figs became a key driver of the agricultural economy, with these products exported to foreign markets through coastal ports, further boosting regional trade.

 

Economic Challenges:
Although agriculture was the main source of livelihood in Jabal Amel, farmers faced numerous challenges that affected their ability to sustain agricultural production. The primary challenge was the heavy taxation imposed by the Ottomans, which required farmers to surrender a large portion of their crops to the authorities. Taxes were typically collected by local tax farmers, who often exploited the farmers, leading to debt accumulation and financial strain.

 

Farmers also struggled to access essential resources for improving agricultural output. Additionally, droughts and harsh climate conditions significantly impacted crop yields, particularly in years of low rainfall or extreme temperatures.

 

2. Trade and Local Markets in Jabal Amel
Trade was a fundamental pillar of Jabal Amel’s economy during the Ottoman period. The region’s strategic geographic location made it a key link between the Lebanese interior and major coastal cities such as Sidon and Tyre, facilitating commercial activity and the exchange of goods. Farmers and traders depended on these markets to sell agricultural and artisanal products, while also serving as hubs for goods imported from other parts of the Levant.

 

Jabal Amel’s trade system relied heavily on periodic local markets where goods were exchanged between farmers and merchants. These markets featured a variety of products, including agricultural goods like olives, grapes, and tobacco, as well as handmade crafts such as pottery and textiles. Markets also played an important social role, bringing people together to share news and strengthen communal ties.

 

Major Commercial Markets:
Markets of Tyre and Sidon: The markets of Tyre and Sidon played a central role in Jabal Amel’s commercial activities, serving as regional trade hubs. Due to their coastal locations on the Mediterranean, they were key points in maritime trade networks connecting Jabal Amel to major cities in the Levant and the Mediterranean basin. These cities attracted agricultural and artisanal goods from surrounding areas, enhancing economic activity.

 

In the markets of Tyre and Sidon, tobacco, olives, grapes, figs, and handmade crafts such as pottery and textiles were sold, along with other goods like grains and foodstuffs. These markets not only offered local products but also received imported goods from cities like Beirut and Damascus. This commercial exchange extended beyond essential goods to luxury items such as fine textiles, metalwork, and jewelry, making these markets vibrant centers of regional trade.

 

Village Markets: In addition to major urban markets, smaller village markets were held throughout Jabal Amel year-round. Though relatively modest in scale, these markets were vital to local economic life, enabling farmers and small-scale traders to exchange necessities like grains, vegetables, fruits, and meats, along with handmade crafts such as carpets and pottery.

 

These markets also served as social gathering spaces where small-scale business transactions took place, and regional news was exchanged. Despite their smaller size compared to Tyre and Sidon’s markets, village markets provided farmers with direct access to local merchants, eliminating the need for intermediaries.

 

The Role of Trade in Jabal Amel’s Economy:
Connecting Jabal Amel to the Wider World: Jabal Amel’s strategic location allowed it to play a crucial role in trade between inland regions and the Levant. Sidon and Tyre acted as transit points for goods moving to and from major coastal cities such as Beirut and Damascus. Tobacco, olives, grapes, and figs were not just consumed locally but were also exported to international markets, strengthening the region’s economic significance.

 

Economic Growth Through Trade: Trade contributed significantly to improving living conditions for many families involved in agriculture and industry. It also led to the development of local crafts such as pottery and textiles, opening new markets for artisanal goods in major cities. Local markets ensured the availability of daily essentials, contributing to economic stability.

 

Challenges to Trade: Despite its prosperity, trade in Jabal Amel faced several challenges, including heavy taxation imposed by both the Ottoman state and local tax collectors. These taxes increased costs for merchants and reduced profit margins.

 

Additionally, conflicts between local clans and the Ottoman authorities disrupted trade routes and damaged markets, limiting the flow of goods between different regions.

 

3. Industries and Handicrafts in Jabal Amel
In addition to agriculture and trade, traditional industries and handicrafts played a vital role in Jabal Amel’s economy during the Ottoman period. These industries supplied essential goods for daily life and contributed to economic independence and cultural identity.

 

Key Handicrafts:
Textile Weaving: A major industry, particularly among village women, using local wool and cotton.
Pottery: Essential for household use and widely traded in local markets.
Blacksmithing and Carpentry: Provided farming tools and wooden structures crucial for daily life.

Conclusion
Jabal Amel experienced significant social and economic transformations during the Ottoman period, maintaining a balance between challenges and cultural resilience. Despite Ottoman taxation and administrative control, the region sustained its agricultural, trade, and industrial activities, ensuring its economic and social stability.